Table 1 Description of included articles (n = 19)

1

Alameddine et al. 2021 Lebanon [32]

To investigate the resilience levels, job satisfaction, and turnover intention and to determine the association between resilience, job satisfaction level, intention-to-quit, and exposure to violence

Cross-sectional design, online self-report questionnaire (spring 2020)

Resilience; job satisfaction; occupational violence

One item: “In the coming 12 months, do you intend to quit?” (likeliness, 4-point Likert scale)

Multiple linear regression. Turnover intention was negatively associated with resilience, i.e., those who were more likely to intend to quit were less resilient (B = -4.35; β = -0.14; p = .020)

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2

Cornish et al. 2021 Australia [33]

To investigate the intentions of Australian emergency nurses to remain in or leave emergency nursing after the first year of the SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) pandemic

Cross-sectional design, online self-report questionnaire (February 15th to March 28th 2021)

Contact with COVID-19 patients; feeling connected to organization/colleagues/team; pride in being an emergency department nurse (among others)

Intention to leave emergency nursing within five years (not reported)

χ2-test. Turnover intention was associated with (a) receiving COVID-19 patients (p = 0.016), (b) not feeling more connected to their emergency department nursing team (p = 0.03), the broader emergency department team (p = 0.008), and their organization (p = 0.03) since the onset of the pandemic, and (c) lower pride in being an emergency department nurse (p = 0.014)

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3

De los Santos & Labrague 2021 Philippines [34]

To investigate the association between fear of COVID-19 and job satisfaction, job stress, and turnover intentions

Cross-sectional design, online self-report questionnaire (mid of June 2020)

Fear of COVID-19; job satisfaction; job stress

Organizational turnover intention: “Given the current situation, I am thinking about leaving this healthcare facility.” (5-point Likert scale); professional turnover intention: “Given the current situation, I am thinking of leaving nursing as a profession.” (agreement; 5-point Likert scale)

Multiple linear regression. An increased level of fear of COVID-19 was associated with increased organizational (B = 0.05; β = 0.24; p = .001) and professional (B = 0.05; β = 0.23; p = .001) turnover intentions

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4

Elhanafy & El Hessewi 2021 Egypt [35]

To investigate the association between fear of COVID-19 and work satisfaction and turnover intentions

Cross-sectional design, self-report questionnaire (January to February 2021)

Fear of COVID-19; work satisfaction

Two single-item measures (O'Driscoll & Beehr, 1994): organizational and professional turnover intention (agreement; 5-point Likert scale)

Multiple linear regression. An increased level of fear of COVID-19 was associated with increased organizational (B = 0.428; β = 0.298; p = 0.001) and professional (B = 0.314; β = 0.219; p = 0.001) turnover intentions

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5

Irshad et al. 2020 Pakistan [29]

To investigate outcomes, the underlying mechanism and boundary condition of the perceived threat of COVID-19

Cross-sectional design, online self-report questionnaire (not reported)

Perceived threat of coronavirus; anxiety; ideological contract

Three-item scale: (1) “Due to the current situation, I often think about quitting”; (2) “Lately, I have taken an interest in job offers in the newspaper due to COVID-19”; (3) “Due to COVID-19, next year I will probably look for a new job outside this organization” (agreement; 5-point Likert scale)

Pearson's correlation. Turnover intention was positively associated with (a) the perceived threat of COVID-19 (r = 0.47; p < .001) and (b) anxiety (r = 0.43; p < 0.001) and negatively associated with (c) ideological contract (r = -0.47; p < .001)

Anxiety enhanced the relationship between perceived threat of COVID-19 and turnover intention. The combined effect of anxiety and ideological contract on turnover intention was negative and significant

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6

Khattak et al. 2021 Pakistan [36]

To investigate the association between fear of COVID-19 and turnover intention, secondary trauma, and psychological distress and to investigate leadership support as a possible moderating variable

Cross-sectional design, not reported (not reported)

Fear of COVID-19; psychological distress; secondary trauma; leadership support

Two-item scale [37], sample item: “Given the current situation, I am thinking about leaving nursing as a profession” (not reported)

Regression analysis. Turnover intention was associated with fear of COVID-19 (β = 0.79; p < .05)

Leadership support buffered this association

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7

Labrague & De los Santos. 2021 a Philippines [38]

To investigate the association between fear of COVID-19 and psychological distress, work satisfaction as well as organizational and professional turnover intentions

Cross-sectional design, not reported (not reported)

Fear of COVID-19; job satisfaction; job stress

Two single-item measures [39] (organizational turnover intention: “Given the current situation, I am thinking about leaving this healthcare facility”; professional turnover intention: “Given the current situation, I am thinking of leaving nursing as a profession” (agreement; 5-point Likert scale)

Pearson's correlation. An increased level of fear of COVID-19 was associated with increased organizational (r = .295; p = .001) and professional (r = .188; p = .001) turnover intentions

Multiple linear regression. An increased level of fear of COVID-19 was associated with increased organizational (B = .428; β = .298; p = .001) and professional (B = .314; β = .219; p = .001) turnover intentions

COVID-19-related training (p = .022) lowered fear of COVID-19, with nurses who reported no COVID-19-related training and held part-time job experiencing higher levels of fear of COVID-19

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8

Labrague & De los Santos. 2021b Philippines [40]

To investigate the association between compassion fatigue and job satisfaction, turnover intention, and care quality and to investigate resilience as a possible moderating variable

Cross-sectional study, online self-report questionnaire (November 1 – December 1, 2020)

Compassion fatigue; resilience; job satisfaction; quality of care

One item: “Given the current situation, I am more likely to leave my profession” (agreement; 5-point Likert scale)

Pearson's correlation. Turnover intention was positively associated with compassion fatigue (r = .301; p = 0.001) and negatively associated with quality of care (r = -.128; p = 0.01)

Multiple linear regression. Turnover intention was positively associated with compassion fatigue (B = .328; β = .301; p = 0.001) and negatively associated with resilience (B = -.336; β = .178; p = 0.004)

Resilience partially mediated the association between compassion fatigue and turnover intention (p = 0.001)

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9

Labrague et al. 2021 Philippines [41]

To investigate the association between nurses’ perceptions of COVID-19-associated discrimination and their resilience, mental health, and professional-turnover intention

Cross-sectional study, online self-report questionnaire (November 1 – December 1, 2020)

COVID-19-associated discrimination; resilience; mental health

One item: “Given the current situation, I am more likely to leave my profession” (agreement; 5-point Likert scale)

Pearson's correlation. Turnover intention was positively associated with COVID-19-associated discrimination (r = .123; p < 0.01) and negatively associated with resilience (r = -.178; p < 0.001)

Multiple linear regression. Turnover intention was positively associated with COVID-19-associated discrimination (B = .130; β = .123; p = 0.048) and negatively associated with resilience (B = -.336; β = -0.182, p = 0.004)

Resilience mediated the association between COVID-19-associated discrimination and turnover intention (p = 0.107)

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10

Lavoie-Tremblay. (2021) Canada [42]

To identify correlates of turnover intention related to the COVID-19 pandemic

Cross-sectional study, online self-report questionnaire (July 22 to November 16 2020)

Job demands: perception of being in control vs. overwhelmed, self-infection, infection of a team member, provided care for COVID-19 patients; job resources: perception of preparedness, transformational leadership; strain and performance: chronic fatigue, work satisfaction, perceived quality of care

Two single-item measures [39]: organizational (intention to leave their current work setting) and professional turnover intention (intention to leave the profession) (agreement; 7-point Likert scale)

F-test. Organizational turnover intention was associated with providing care to COVID-19 patients10 (F = 10.49; p < .01)

t-test. Organizational and professional turnover intentions were positively associated with being poorly prepared (t = 11.16, t = 9.69, respectively; p < 0.001) and negatively associated with feeling in control of the situation at work (t = -13.19, t = -9.59, respectively; p < 0.001). Organizational turnover intention was negatively associated with self-infection or team infected answer “yes” (t = -3.01; p < 0.01)

Regression model. Organizational turnover intention was positively associated with (a) chronic fatigue (B = .02; β = .31; p < .001) and negatively associated with (b) more experience in the setting (B = -.02; β = -.08; p < .001), (c) feeling in control of the situation at work (B = -.12; β = -.06, p < .01), (d) having a leader with a transformational leadership style (B = -.05; β = -.16; p < .001), and (e) work satisfaction (B = -.30; β = -.22; p < .001). Professional turnover was positively associated with (a) chronic fatigue (B = .03; β = .37; p < .001) and (b) caring for COVID-19 patients (B = .28; β = .07; p < .001) as well as negatively associated with (c) preparedness (B = -.17; β = -.07; p < .01), (d) having a leader with a transformational leadership style (B = -.02; β = -.08; p < .01), and (e) work satisfaction (B = -.19; β = -.15; p < .001)

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11

Li et al. (2021) Taiwan [43]

To investigate the association between pandemic-related work conditions and adverse mental health among nurses and to investigate organizational strategies as possible moderating variables

Cross-sectional study, online self-report questionnaire (July to December 2020)

Stressors: increasing working hours, caring for COVID-19 patients, occupational stigma, redeployment; organizational strategies: adequate protection equipment, adequate infection control measures, adequate education and training concerning COVID-19, compensation, support by the employer; burnout; depressive symptoms

Intention to leave the current job during the pandemic in comparison with that before the pandemic (agreement; 5-point Likert scale)

Multivariate logistic regression. Turnover intention was positively associated with (a) redeployment (OR = 1.54; 95% CI: 1.13–2.10), (b) increased working hours (OR = 1.55; 95% CI: 1.16–2.07) and (c) occupational stigma (OR = 1.60; 95% CI: 1.22–2.10) as well as negatively associated with (d) education/training (OR = 0.61; 95% CI: 0.45–0.84) and (e) support by the employer (OR = 0,54; 95% CI: 0.36–0.81)

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12

Lou et al. 2021 Canada [44]

To investigate coping strategies as possible moderating variables on the negative impact of stress and intentions to quit

Cross-sectional study, self-report questionnaire (July 31 – August 15 2020)

Depression; anxiety; stress; burnout; stressors; perceived Impact of stress on work; coping strategies

Two items whether they were thinking about leaving their health care facility and their profession (Yes/No)

Logistic regression. Turnover intention was associated with burnout (b = 1.00; SE = 0.34; p = .003)

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13

Mirzaei et al. 2021 Iran [45]

To investigate the association between turnover intention and psychosocial factors during the COVID-19 pandemic

Cross-sectional study, online self-report questionnaire (June 2020)

General health; job content; impact of event (COVID-19 pandemic)

Turnover Intention Questionnaire [46]: 15 items (agreement; 5-point Likert scale)

Pearson's correlation. Turnover intention was positively associated with (a) post-traumatic stress disorder (r = .35), (b) general health (r = .31), (c) job demand (r = .30), (d) job insecurity (r = .27), and (e) job strain (r = .27; p ≤ .01 for all) and negatively associated with (f) social support (r = -.35; p < .01). Multiple linear regression: Turnover intention was positively associated with (a) job strain (B = 41.425; β = .624; p = .013), (b) decision latitude (B = .677; β = .445; p = .011), (c) post-traumatic stress disorder (B = .177; β = .238; p < .001), (d) general health (B = .582; β = .209; p < 0.001), and (e) married status (B = 2.976; β = .111; p = .009) as well as negatively associated with (f) female gender (B = -3.263; β = -.131; p = .002), (g) social support (B = -.714; β = -.243; p < .001) and (h) work position (B = -1.797; β = -.084; p = .038)

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14

Nashwan et al. 2021 Qatar [47]

To identify correlates of turnover intention before and during COVID-19

Cross-sectional study, online self-report questionnaire (August to September 2020)

Stress level before and during COVID-19

Turnover Intention Scale (TIS-6): six items [48]

Wilcoxon signed-ranks test. Turnover intention was associated with (a) being single (p = 0.007), (b) 5–10 years of experience (vs. < 5 years; p = .023), (c) critical care deployment (vs. other areas; p = .047), 3–6 months of deployment (vs. > 6 months and < 2 months; p = 0.047), and (d) stress level (p < .001)

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15

Özkan Şat et al. 2021 Turkey [49]

To investigate the association between nurses' exposure to violence and their professional commitment during the COVID-19 pandemic

Cross-sectional study, online self-report questionnaire (October to December 2020)

Status of exposure to violence during the COVID-19 pandemic process; professional commitment

Professional turnover intention (not reported)

χ2-test. Turnover intention was associated with (a) exposure to physical violence (p = .011), (b) exposure to verbal-emotional-psychological violence (p = .002), (c) exposure to mobbing (p < .001), (d) department change (p = .043), (e) increased working hours (p < .001), and (f) increased number of patients (p = .004)

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16

Petrișor et al. 2021 Romania [50]

To investigate the association between moral distress, depression, and anxiety, and turnover intention

Cross-sectional study, pen-and-paper self-report questionnaire (October 2020 to February 2021)

Moral distress, anxiety, depression, number of years spent working in intensive care unit

Present intention to leave (Yes/No)

t-test. Turnover intention was associated with higher moral distress, but only system-related factors (vs. patient- or team-related factors) differentiated between nurses intending to leave or not during the COVID-19 pandemic (p = 0.042)

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17

Sheppard et al. 2021 USA [51]

To investigate the association between moral distress and turnover intention

Cross-sectional study, online self-report questionnaire (July 2020 and August 2020)

Moral distress

One item: intent-to-leave question (Yes/No)

t-test. Turnover intention was associated with higher moral distress (p < .001)

Stepwise binary logistic regression. Turnover intention was associated perceived issues with the work environment (OR = 9.09; 95% CI: 3.13–26.39) in third and final step

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18

Widodo et al. 2021 Indonesia [52]

To investigate the association between organizational culture, pay satisfaction, and job satisfaction and intention to leave

Cross-sectional study, questionnaire (not reported)

Organizational culture, pay satisfaction, job satisfaction

Intention to leave (not reported)

t-test. Turnover intention was negatively associated with organizational culture, e.g., involvement and adaptability (p = 0.002) and nurses’ pay satisfaction (p = 0.019)

4/12

19

Wood et al. 2021 UK [53]

To investigate the experiences of advanced practice nurses during the COVID-19 pandemic, particularly in relation to safety, shortages, and retention

Mixed-methods-design (two weeks in June 2020)

Preparedness of the organization (impact on patient and staff safety, shortages of staff and equipment, concerns, ability to access guidelines and advice, policy regarding staff sickness)

Intention to leave the organization or the profession (not reported)

Spearman’s rho test. Turnover intention among nurses was associated with (a) not being able to provide the same standard of care as they did before the crisis (p = 0.015), (b) not feeling their safety was prioritised (p = 0.01), and (c) not feeling there was sufficient communication from management about coronavirus planning (p = 0.03)

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