Table 4 GEE models for the comparison of outcome variables over the study period (N = 128)

HbA1c (%)

−0.20

(− 0.62, 0.23)

0.365

–

–

0.18

(0.05, 0.30)

0.006

–

–

−0.32

(− 0.49, − 0.14)

<  0.001

General diet

0.30

(−0.38, 0.98)

0.383

0.37

(−0.04, 0.77)

0.075

0.31

(−0.08, 0.70)

0.114

0.01

(−0.49, 0.51)

0.967

0.19

(−0.32, 0.70)

0.459

Specific diet regarding intake of fruits and vegetables

−0.04

(− 0.94, 0.86)

0.934

−0.16

(− 0.62, 0.29)

0.483

−0.12

(− 0.59, 0.36)

0.635

1.02

(0.24, 1.80)

0.011

0.98

(0.18, 1.78)

0.016

Specific diet regarding intake of high fat foods

0.07

(−0.75, 0.88)

0.875

−0.01

(− 0.48, 0.45)

0.958

0.09

(−0.38, 0.55)

0.717

0.83

(0.12, 1.55)

0.023

0.50

(−0.20, 1.20)

0.163

Physical activity

−0.15

(− 0.91, 0.62)

0.702

0.10

(−0.27, 0.48)

0.586

−0.15

(− 0.56, 0.26)

0.473

0.15

(−0.31, 0.62)

0.525

0.39

(−0.12, 0.90)

0.132

Blood glucose monitoring

−0.25

(−1.02, 0.53)

0.532

−0.03

(− 0.24, 0.17)

0.751

−0.20

(− 0.51, 0.12)

0.218

0.36

(−0.01, 0.72)

0.057

0.64

(0.20, 1.08)

0.004

Foot care

−0.17

(−1.1, 0.76)

0.717

−0.04

(− 0.46, 0.39)

0.863

−0.01

(− 0.46, 0.44)

0.962

1.80

(1.05, 2.54)

< 0.001

2.02

(1.27, 2.77)

< 0.001

Smoking status (non-smoker to smoker ratio)

1.23

(0.58, 2.62)

0.593

1.13

(0.85, 1.51)

0.392

1.32

(0.91, 1.91)

0.141

1.38

(0.85, 2.25)

0.195

1.95

(0.95, 4.00)

0.067

Medication management

0.56

(−0.43, 1.55)

0.267

− 0.08

(− 0.27, 0.12)

0.441

− 0.13

(− 0.33, 0.08)

0.230

0.83

(0.25, 1.41)

0.005

0.95

(0.31, 1.58)

0.003

Self-efficacy (DMSES)

−3.60

(−15.71, 8.50)

0.560

−2.90

(−5.73, −0.08)

0.044

−3.43

(−6.47, −0.39)

0.027

8.73

(3.34, 14.12)

0.001

9.71

(4.03, 15.38)

0.001