Table 3 Coping styles and post-traumatic responses of the exposed groups

Coping styles

Self-distraction

6.10 ± 1.34

5.44 ± 1.29

2.858

.005

Active coping

6.19 ± 1.49

5.52 ± 1.20

2.930

.004

Denial

4.17 ± 1.75

3.42 ± 1.57

2.534

.012

Substance use

4.48 ± 1.99

3.08 ± 1.89

4.047

< .001

Use of emotional support

6.05 ± 1.54

5.85 ± 1.49

0.733

.465

Use of instrumental support

5.97 ± 1.57

5.69 ± 1.65

1.002

.318

Behavioral disengagement

4.12 ± 1.55

4.06 ± 1.46

0.224

.823

Venting

5.42 ± 1.61

5.52 ± 1.66

-0.357

.721

Positive reframing

5.71 ± 1.41

5.50 ± 1.43

0.860

.391

Planning

5.84 ± 1.46

5.46 ± 1.29

1.531

.128

Humor

3.57 ± 1.75

4.29 ± 1.75

-2.334

.021

Acceptance

5.64 ± 1.21

5.90 ± 1.51

-1.092

.277

Religion

4.33 ± 2.18

4.23 ± 1.85

0.266

.790

Self-blame

4.67 ± 1.66

4.50 ± 1.68

0.591

.555

Post-traumatic cognitions

104.61 ± 40.06

115.02 ± 43.64

-1.432

.154

Post-traumatic stress

Re-experiencing

12.83 ± 5.35

9.42 ± 4.50

3.805

< .001

Avoidance

16.97 ± 7.53

12.67 ± 7.59

3.235

.002

Arousal

13.54 ± 5.59

9.46 ± 4.93

4.306

< .001

Post-traumatic growth

49.24 ± 12.80

47.25 ± 14.68

0.842

.401

Negative emotional states

 Depression

33.55 ± 12.58

22.83 ± 9.40

5.228

< .001

 Anxiety

23.16 ± 10.17

22.75 ± 8.63

0.242

.809

 Stress

32.96 ± 10.76

26.25 ± 9.92

3.629

< .001